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Author Topic:   Manifest Contagion: Native Americans as Plague Victims & Keystone Species
Omnivorous
Member
Posts: 3977
From: Adirondackia
Joined: 07-21-2005
Member Rating: 7.3


Message 1 of 9 (265450)
12-04-2005 1:16 PM


In another thread, I asserted that contrary to a stereotypically macho, conquest-by-superior-might view that still dominates American primary and secondary eduction, Native American populations were large rather than small, that European pathogens swept the continent so swiftly there was little actual conquest involved, and that the "seas of bison" and "skies of passenger pigeons" were a direct result, a consequence that encouraged a European view of "limitless bounty" in the New World with tragic results still unfolding today.
I ascribed the resistance to these ideas as an instance of nation-founding mythos defying a more accurate history grounded in science: in short, without smallpox, hepatitis, typhus, and measles, a hardy Native American warrior culture might well have repulsed the invaders despite the technological disadvantages.
Holmes expressed interest in the sources of these ideas. To explore those, I'd like to address the Precolumbian population of the Americas, their keystone predator species status, and their aggressive land mangement practices.
My ideas were first impacted by work done in the 1960s and 1970s by a younger generation of scholars, work whose credibility I found reaffirmed by Jared Diamond's Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies published in 1999, and further strengthened by more rigorous studies in recent years.
Diamond's work excited a great deal of controversy, but even on first principles his hypothesis held great power: given that human cultures show similar stages in their development of agriculture, technology, and power, and given that we see no genetic explanation for one culture arriving at a "more advanced" stage before another, we should look for explanations in the natural resource contexts of those cultures: the relative wealth of readily domesticated plants and animals here vs. their paucity there, the history of animal husbandry in close proximity to livestock which act as disease vectors to humans and thus well established resistance there vs. near-total vulnerability here, etc.
I would like to first address the devastatingly rapid impact of European-borne pathogens on Native American populations. Later, I'd like to move on to the consequences of nearly extinguishing this keystone predator species and the consequent impact on colonial attitudes about the apparently inexhaustible floral and faunal wealth of the New World--and, of course, to explore whatever avenues to which discussion leads. For example, this newer view of the precontact Americas has profound implications for the "pristine wilderness" ideal which has shaped much of modern U.S. conservation efforts, but I hope to defer that discussion until later.
A new book by Charles C. Mann, 1491, published in August 2005 by Random House, summarizes many of the new conclusions and the work that produced them. From the publisher's web page:
” In 1491 there were probably more people living in the Americas than in Europe.
” Certain cities-such as Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital-were far greater in population than any contemporary European city. Furthermore, Tenochtitlán, unlike any capital in Europe at that time, had running water, beautiful botanical gardens, and immaculately clean streets.
” The earliest cities in the Western Hemisphere were thriving before the Egyptians built the great pyramids.
” Pre-Columbian Indians in Mexico developed corn by a breeding process so sophisticated that the journal Science recently described it as “man’s first, and perhaps the greatest, feat of genetic engineering.”
” Amazonian Indians learned how to farm the rain forest without destroying it-a process scientists are studying today in the hope of regaining this lost knowledge.
” Native Americans transformed their land so completely that Europeans arrived in a hemisphere already massively “landscaped” by human beings.
A few years earlier, in 2002, Mann published a piece in The Atlantic Monthly based on his ongoing work on 1491. Here are some quotes concerning the role of pathogens, and a link to an archive of that article at UCLA. The text in this link helps introduce not only the ideas but the controversies, and contains a plethora of links to other relevant books and studies.
The Plymouth Colony settlers as corn cache thieves and grave-robbers:
The Mayflower first hove to at Cape Cod. An armed company staggered out. Eventually it found a recently deserted Indian settlement. The newcomers”hungry, cold, sick”dug up graves and ransacked houses, looking for underground stashes of corn. "And sure it was God's good providence that we found this corn," Bradford wrote, "for else we know not how we should have done." (He felt uneasy about the thievery, though.) When the colonists came to Plymouth, a month later, they set up shop in another deserted Indian village. All through the coastal forest the Indians had "died on heapes, as they lay in their houses," the English trader Thomas Morton noted. "And the bones and skulls upon the severall places of their habitations made such a spectacle" that to Morton the Massachusetts woods seemed to be "a new found Golgotha"”the hill of executions in Roman Jerusalem.
To the Pilgrims' astonishment, one of the corpses they exhumed on Cape Cod had blond hair. A French ship had been wrecked there several years earlier. The Patuxet Indians imprisoned a few survivors. One of them supposedly learned enough of the local language to inform his captors that God would destroy them for their misdeeds. The Patuxet scoffed at the threat. But the Europeans carried a disease, and they bequeathed it to their jailers. The epidemic (probably of viral hepatitis, according to a study by Arthur E. Spiess, an archaeologist at the Maine Historic Preservation Commission, and Bruce D. Spiess, the director of clinical research at the Medical College of Virginia) took years to exhaust itself and may have killed 90 percent of the people in coastal New England. It made a huge difference to American history. "The good hand of God favored our beginnings," Bradford mused, by "sweeping away great multitudes of the natives ... that he might make room for us."
The seminal work that reevalauted the precontact populations of the Americas began in the southern hemisphere, work done by Henry F. Dobyns and published as "Estimating Aboriginal American Population: An Appraisal of Techniques With a New Hemispheric Estimate," in the journal Current Anthropology in 1966.
Mann writes of Dobyns work:
The Indians in Peru, Dobyns concluded, had faced plagues from the day the conquistadors showed up”in fact, before then: smallpox arrived around 1525, seven years ahead of the Spanish. Brought to Mexico apparently by a single sick Spaniard, it swept south and eliminated more than half the population of the Incan empire. Smallpox claimed the Incan dictator Huayna Capac and much of his family, setting off a calamitous war of succession. So complete was the chaos that Francisco Pizarro was able to seize an empire the size of Spain and Italy combined with a force of 168 men.
Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, measles in 1618”all ravaged the remains of Incan culture. Dobyns was the first social scientist to piece together this awful picture, and he naturally rushed his findings into print. Hardly anyone paid attention. But Dobyns was already working on a second, related question: If all those people died, how many had been living there to begin with? Before Columbus, Dobyns calculated, the Western Hemisphere held ninety to 112 million people. Another way of saying this is that in 1491 more people lived in the Americas than in Europe.
That's enough for now, I think.
I dunno, AdminAvatars: too much for a discussion thread? Maybe Columnist's Corner or The Book Nook? I don't want to subvert the original thread with this tangent, but otherwise I am content with your placement wishes.

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 Message 2 by AdminRandman, posted 12-04-2005 4:16 PM Omnivorous has replied

  
AdminRandman
Inactive Member


Message 2 of 9 (265497)
12-04-2005 4:16 PM
Reply to: Message 1 by Omnivorous
12-04-2005 1:16 PM


where do want this promoted?
I think it ought to be in a science forum, but tying it into evolution is a little tenuous.
As an early response, the following more as a poster not admin for the most part, I think you are right, that diseases wiped out the Indians largely.
That doesn't fully explain some of the passivity of the Aztecs towards the initial raiding parties of Spaniards, but maybe they were entranced by superstitious beliefs the Spaniards were connected with the gods or some such.
I also think if we can recover some of the lost knowledge some Indians had in agriculture and maybe some other areas, we would do well. On the other hand, I think many Indian practices, such as Mayans offering human sacrifices, are rightly eschewed.
This message has been edited by AdminRandman, 12-04-2005 04:18 PM

This message is a reply to:
 Message 1 by Omnivorous, posted 12-04-2005 1:16 PM Omnivorous has replied

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AdminRandman
Inactive Member


Message 3 of 9 (265498)
12-04-2005 4:24 PM


Ok, the Book Nook.
Thread moved here from the Proposed New Topics forum.
I think this is an excellent topic, btw.
This message has been edited by AdminRandman, 12-04-2005 04:26 PM

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 Message 4 by Omnivorous, posted 12-05-2005 9:08 AM AdminRandman has not replied

  
Omnivorous
Member
Posts: 3977
From: Adirondackia
Joined: 07-21-2005
Member Rating: 7.3


Message 4 of 9 (265699)
12-05-2005 9:08 AM
Reply to: Message 3 by AdminRandman
12-04-2005 4:24 PM


Re: Ok, the Book Nook.
Thanks for the topic promotion, Rand. The Book Nook is fine: I have it on good authority that Santa has 1491 in his sack for me, and I'll do my first book review in decades once I've read it.
As to your earlier comment concerning the topic's tenuous connection to evolution, I must strenuously disagree. The pathogen-packed Europeans who arrived on these shores were the product of millenia of evolution--by both pathogens and humans.
The pathogens they delivered to the Americas evolved in the context of close proximity by humans to cattle, swine, and fowl; it was not uncommon for European peasants to bring livestock into the house during cold winters, periods of heightened predation, etc.
Similar practices by peasant farmers in Asia with regards to swine and fowl provide a breeding ground and genetic exchange for pathogens, generating viral pandemics that have swept the 20th century world with regularity and that have now captured the Western world's full attention.
So, in two important ways--the interspecies context in which the pathogens developed, and the ability of resistant Europeans to serve as carriers--the conquest of the Americas hinged on evolution.

This message is a reply to:
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Omnivorous
Member
Posts: 3977
From: Adirondackia
Joined: 07-21-2005
Member Rating: 7.3


Message 5 of 9 (265744)
12-05-2005 11:22 AM
Reply to: Message 2 by AdminRandman
12-04-2005 4:16 PM


One more pathogen discussion, then moving on...
The arrival of conquistadors in the southern hemisphere was certainly an amazing event for the Aztecs and Incans: they were, perhaps, as you suggest, more than merely biologically naive in the welcome they offered. But since they began dying by the millions within weeks, an initial spate of resistance would have made little difference.
I'm going to offer one more source text on the Colubmian Exchange before moving on to the buffalo tonight.
The material quoted here was compiled from Zkea an excellent open-source site that tracks info about biological threats, both emerging diseases and biological warfare agents.
I have added emphasis to some especially interesting points.
Consider the case of the Native Americans of the 15th century. Estimates vary, but most scholars place the population of North and South America between 40 and 100 million at the time of European arrival. Much of this population was scattered and tribal. But many were organized in large and very sophisticated cultures. These demographics are particularly impressive when you consider that Europe had a roughly comparable population at that time.
These Native American societies were rich and complex. They were also militaristic and quite able to defend themselves against European incursion. True, the Europeans had a modest technological edge (primitive fire-arms and the horse), but the Native Americans had overwhelming numbers, disciplined and experienced armies, an effective command structure, and the pervasive advantage of defending themselves on their own terrain. Therefore, by all measures, these societies were quite capable of repelling any invading European force.
Due to these factors, the competitive situation between the opposing cultures was clear. The Americas were already completely occupied. There was no room left for Europeans. Victory and colonization of the Americas by European powers should have therefore been impossible.
Yet events proved otherwise. Within a few years small groups of Spanish conquistadors wiped out the Aztec and Incan civilizations. Smallpox was introduced into the New World via one of Cortez's men.
This single man passed the virus to a few Native Americans. From there the virus exploded outward, racing ahead of the Europeans to infect two continents. Within a few months millions of Aztecs were dying. Within a few years the Incan empire was in its biological death throes. In another decade the virus had spread up the Mississippi river. Thus it was comparatively easy for the conquistadors to destroy these empires - for these empires were already dying.
It is difficult to overstate the physical and psychological terror of such epidemics. When death becomes so random and pervasive civilization quickly breaks down. Such was the case with the Native Americans. In the space of a few years ancient cities and societies crumbled to dust. Survivors were terrified and dispirited, as they watched their families die from unseen forces while the white man remained eerily untouched. As one early Spanish missionary wrote: "Indians die very easily. A single breath of a white man is usually sufficient." As populations plummeted, ancient cultures and traditions melted away. The resulting cultural dislocation made it easy to enslave the few remaining survivors as well as implant new cultural traditions. Indeed, it was because of these epidemics that alien languages and religions were relatively easily imposed on the conquered people. What choice did they have? The traditional gods had abandoned them . Meanwhile, the white man's god was clearly stronger and obviously quite angry.
No testimony can convey the devastation. Native populations in some areas fell over 90% in just a few years. Beyond the obvious demographic toll, there was fatal psychological and cultural impact as well. With political and religious leaders dead and the culture destroyed, surviving natives were simply incapable of resisting the Europeans any further. This opened the continents to European conquest and domination. This included the imposition of foreign languages and religions. It also, by the way, opened the door towards the institution of slavery. With the continents depopulated, a serious labor shortage ensued in the newly established plantations. Remaining Native Americans were simply too few and too weak to ease this shortage. Africans, however, broadly shared the same immune defenses as Europeans. Thus they became the preferred "import", and the slave trade began.
This effect was dramatic. Some heavily populated islands - such as Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic) - lost their entire native populations to disease. The natives went extinct. In their place came African slaves. Within a few years these islands were demographically totally transformed from populous Native American tribal societies to black plantation economies administered by a small white aristocracy.
The same story was repeated in the North American continent. Early English and American explorers were surprised to find vacant towns and overgrown fields where large native populations once flourished. Particularly in the fertile lower Mississippi valley, explorers were astounded by the silence and the degree of devastation. "There exist large and very impressive Indian towns in this territory," wrote one early explorer, "but not a single Indian. It is a mystery." But there was no mystery. European diseases had simply outrun the Europeans themselves, depopulating lands ahead of their exploration. Only the greatly diminished tribal cultures of the Plains and the West survived. Given their weakness, these were easily eliminated militarily by the expanding European settlers in the following centuries.
History is filled with additional examples. The Black Death (actually a wave of epidemics, stretching over centuries, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis) first became visible in the Chinese hinterlands early in the Christian era. The effects were cataclysmic. In some epidemic waves, up to 98% of local populations died. The later effects on India and Islamic countries were often just as severe. The plague then reached Europe in the 14th century, where it proceeded to quickly kill one third of the population. As elsewhere, the effects in Europe of this level of mortality were fundamental and far-reaching. Economies collapsed, cities were abandoned and famine stalked the landscape. And, as in the case of the Native Americans, there were pervasive cultural effects as well. A preoccupation with death became the norm, both in art and in daily life. "People no longer bother with work and planning for the future," wrote one chronicler, "but instead live only for the day."
More examples: the Athenian plague of 430 B.C. that catalyzed the fall of Athens to Sparta; the terrible Roman plagues of 180 A.D. and 252 A.D., leading eventually to the fall of the Empire; countless Indian and Chinese plagues, some of which set population growth back by centuries. Ancient history is full of harrowing accounts of the mass death and dislocation caused by infectious disease.
As I mentioned, tonight I hope to address the surprisingly complex impact of European invasion on the buffalo.
This message has been edited by Omnivorous, 12-05-2005 11:22 AM
This message has been edited by Omnivorous, 12-05-2005 11:25 AM

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 Message 6 by Ben!, posted 12-05-2005 12:30 PM Omnivorous has replied

  
Ben!
Member (Idle past 1398 days)
Posts: 1161
From: Hayward, CA
Joined: 10-14-2004


Message 6 of 9 (265770)
12-05-2005 12:30 PM
Reply to: Message 5 by Omnivorous
12-05-2005 11:22 AM


Re: One more pathogen discussion, then moving on...
Hi Omni,
A very sad, interesting story. But there's something I can't figure out.
If America and Europe were so isolated in their immune defenses, why was the transfer of disease one way--from Europeans to Native Americans, and not in the opposite direction as well?
I mean, I'm sure we can come up with plausible explanations. I'm wondering if there's a plausible explanation that has evidence backing it up.
It's curious. America should have been filled with new diseases. The Europeans simply brought a small subset of their culture and habitat; America was ENTIRE cultures and habitats.
Ben

This message is a reply to:
 Message 5 by Omnivorous, posted 12-05-2005 11:22 AM Omnivorous has replied

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 Message 7 by Omnivorous, posted 12-05-2005 1:14 PM Ben! has not replied
 Message 8 by jar, posted 12-05-2005 1:14 PM Ben! has not replied
 Message 9 by Omnivorous, posted 12-05-2005 1:20 PM Ben! has not replied

  
Omnivorous
Member
Posts: 3977
From: Adirondackia
Joined: 07-21-2005
Member Rating: 7.3


Message 7 of 9 (265783)
12-05-2005 1:14 PM
Reply to: Message 6 by Ben!
12-05-2005 12:30 PM


Re: One more pathogen discussion, then moving on...
Good question, Ben. The Columbian Exchange of pathogens does appear to have been largely a one-way flow with some exceptions, such as syphillis.
I believe the answer lies in the relatively short period of time during which the Americas were occupied before European contact, and the crucial events in Western civilization between the arrival of the first Americans and subsequent European contact.
The Western-bred pathogens under discussion arose only since the establishment of agriculture, and then large cities, both developments crucial to the pathogens' own evolution. For example, one suspected progenitor of smallpox is camelpox. Even if camelpox mutated to a more virulent strain in earlier millenia, as long as human settlements were scattered and small in size, the outbreak would tend to sputter out as Ebola does now in African jungle villages.
The settlement of the Americas by migration is estimated at anywhere from 12,000 to 40,000 years--since agriculture and the domestication of animals on the Eurasian/African land masses date back about 10,000 years, the pathogens that so ravaged Native Americans arose only after the divergence between the Americas' first settlers and other world populations.
Also, the Spanish conquistadors were ideal Euorope-to-America carriers because they enjoyed some resistance to the pathogens they carried; thus, a sailor could leave Spain with a smallpox infection, and perhaps even survive it, but in any case manage to pass the infection along.
If a Spanish sailor encountered a deadly pathogen in South America, however, being biologically naive to it as the native peoples were to his viral/bacterial load, he was unlike to survive long enough to carry that contagion home.
This message has been edited by Omnivorous, 12-05-2005 01:15 PM

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jar
Member (Idle past 393 days)
Posts: 34026
From: Texas!!
Joined: 04-20-2004


Message 8 of 9 (265784)
12-05-2005 1:14 PM
Reply to: Message 6 by Ben!
12-05-2005 12:30 PM


Re: One more pathogen discussion, then moving on...
That's some great questions. I think there are several important considerations.
One is that what we see is not the total transfer of deseases but rather the result of one or two major pathogens. It's quite possible, likely even, that there was an equal exchange of pathogens, a two way street. However, on one side there were one or two really horrific examples, smallpox as an example, that spread easily, rapidly and with devestating results.
Second, initially there were only very small colonies of Europeans. Many of them did die out and we simply don't know the reasons.
Finally, while the possiblility of transmission was wide open in the New World, the transmission in the other direction, from the New to the Old, was far more restrictive. There were few peoples that made the journey both ways, from Old to New and back again to the Old, so the evidences of any such infection would be most likley here.

Aslan is not a Tame Lion

This message is a reply to:
 Message 6 by Ben!, posted 12-05-2005 12:30 PM Ben! has not replied

  
Omnivorous
Member
Posts: 3977
From: Adirondackia
Joined: 07-21-2005
Member Rating: 7.3


Message 9 of 9 (265785)
12-05-2005 1:20 PM
Reply to: Message 6 by Ben!
12-05-2005 12:30 PM


Re: One more pathogen discussion, then moving on...
It's curious. America should have been filled with new diseases. The Europeans simply brought a small subset of their culture and habitat; America was ENTIRE cultures and habitats.
Actually, Ben, the European nations were in frequent contact, through trade and warfare, for many centuries before the conquest of the Americas.
The rapid march of the bubonic plague across Eurasia/Africa demonstrated just how contiguous the disease vectors are in that land mass, both through direct human contact and animal reservoirs.

This message is a reply to:
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