Genesis "kinds" may be Nested Hierarchies.

[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate]Primates[/url]
 │
 └─[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strepsirrhini]Strepsirhini[/url]
    │ └─(*) All living and extinct strepsirhini not listed below
    │
    ├─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorisoidea]Lorisiformes[/url]
    │       └─(*) All living and extinct lorises
    │
    ├─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemuriformes]Lemuriformes[/url]
    │       └─(*) All living and extinct lemurs
    │
    ├─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adapiformes]Adapiformes[/url]
    │       └─(*) All extinct apadiformes (including Pelycodus)
    │
    ├─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplorhini]Haplorhini[/url]
    │       └─(*) All living and extinct haplorhini
    │
    ├─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarsiiformes]Tarsiiformes[/url]
    │       └─(*) All living and extinct tarsiiformes
    │
    └─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simian]Simiiformes[/url] (or Anthropoidea)
           │ └─(*) All living and extinct simiiformes not listed below
           │
           ├─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World_monkey]Platyrrhini[/url]
           │       └─(*) All living and extinct new world monkeys
           │
           └─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catarrhini]Catarrhini[/url]
                  │ └─(*) All living and extinct catarrhini not listed below
                  │
                  ├─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World_monkey]Cercopithecidae[/url]
                  │       └─(*) All living and extinct old world monkeys
                  │
                  ├─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colobinae]Colobinae[/url]
                  │       └─(*) All living and extinct colobinae
                  │
                  └─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ape]Hominoidea[/url] (superfamily)
                         │ └─(*) All living and extinct apes not listed below
               ┌─────────┘
               │
               ├─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_(primate)]Proconsul[/url]
               │       └─(*) All extinct proconsul desendants
               │
               └──┬───[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenyapithecus]Kenyapithecus[/url]
                  │     └─(*) All extinct kenyapithecus desendants
                  │
                  └──┬───[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbon]Hylobatidae[/url] (gibbons)
                     │      └─(*) All living and extinct gibbons
                     │
                     └─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hominidae]Hominidae[/url] (family)
                            │ └─(*) All living and extinct great apes not listed below
                  ┌─────────┘
                  │
                  ├─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dryopithecus]Dryopithecus[/url]
                  │       └─(*) All extinct dryopithicus desendants
                  │
                  └──┬───[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierolapithecus]Pierolapithecus[/url]
                     │     └─(*) All extinct pierolapithecus desendants
                     │
                     └──┬───[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponginae]Ponginae[/url] (family)
                        │     └─(*) All living and extinct Orangutans
                        │
                        └─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homininae]Homininae[/url] (subfamily)
                               │ └─(*) All living and extinct homininae not listed below
                               │
                               ├─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samburupithecus]Samburupithecus[/url]
                               │       └─(*) All extinct samburupithecus desendants
                               │
                               ├─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakalipithecus]Nakalipithecus[/url]
                               │       └─(*) All extinct nakalipithecus desendants
                               │
                               └──┬───[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorillini]Gorillini[/url] (tribe)
                                  │     └─(*) All living and extinct Gorillas
                                  │
                                  └─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hominini]Hominini[/url] (tribe)
                                         │ └─(*) All living and extinct hominini not listed below
                               ┌─────────┘
                               │
                               └──┬─?─[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahelanthropus]Sahelanthropus[/url](possible common ancestor)
                                  │     └─(*) All extinct sahelanthropus desendants
                                  │
                                  ├─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzee]Panina[/url] (subtribe)
                                  │       └─(*) All living and extinct Chimpanzees
                                  │
                                  └─────[url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo]Hominina[/url] (subtribe)
                                          └─(*) All living and extinct Hominina
                                               including Homo sapiens

Notes
(*) denotes "a nested clade of ..."

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Pelycodus was a tree-dwelling primate that looked much like a modern lemur. The skull shown is probably 7.5 centimeters long.

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The numbers down the left hand side indicate the depth (in feet) at which each group of fossils was found. As is usual in geology, the diagram gives the data for the deepest (oldest) fossils at the bottom, and the upper (youngest) fossils at the top. The diagram covers about five million years.

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The numbers across the bottom are a measure of body size. Each horizontal line shows the range of sizes that were found at that depth. The dark part of each line shows the average value, and the standard deviation around the average.

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Wikipedia Platypus:

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The platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), sometimes referred to as the duck-billed platypus, is a semiaquatic egg-laying mammal endemic to eastern Australia, including Tasmania. Together with the four species of echidna, it is one of the five extant species of monotremes, the only mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth. The animal is the sole living representative of its family (Ornithorhynchidae) and genus (Ornithorhynchus), though a number of related species have been found in the fossil record. ...

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Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Monotremata
Family:	Ornithorhynchidae
Genus:	Ornithorhynchus
Species:	O. anatinus

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... In fact, modern monotremes are the survivors of an early branching of the mammal tree, and a later branching is thought to have led to the marsupial and placental groups.[66][68] Molecular clock and fossil dating suggest platypuses split from echidnas around 19—48 million years ago.[69]
The oldest discovered fossil of the modern platypus dates back to about 100,000 years ago, during the Quaternary period. The extinct monotremes Teinolophos and Steropodon were once thought to be closely related to the modern platypus,[67] but are now considered more basal taxa.[71] The fossilised Steropodon was discovered in New South Wales and is composed of an opalised lower jawbone with three molar teeth (whereas the adult contemporary platypus is toothless). The molar teeth were initially thought to be tribosphenic, which would have supported a variation of Gregory's theory, but later research has suggested, while they have three cusps, they evolved under a separate process.[72] The fossil is thought to be about 110 million years old, making it the oldest mammal fossil found in Australia. Unlike the modern platypus (and echidnas), Teinolophos lacked a beak.[71] ...

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Reconstruction of ancient platypus relative Steropodon

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               ┌────Platypus
│
┌───────┤
│       │
│       └────Echidnas
│
───────┤
│              ┌────Marsupials
│              │
│ live birth   │
└──────────────┤
│  true placenta
└─────────────────Eutherians

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Evolutionary relationships between the platypus and other mammals.[70]

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Mammalia

Mammaliformes
│
└─Mammalia
├─Australosphenida
│ ├─Ausktribosphenidae
│ └─Monotremata
└─┬─Triconodonta
└─┬─Spalacotheroidea
└─Cladotheria
├─Dryolestoidea
└─Theria
│
├─Metatheria
└─Eutheria

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Monotremata: Ornithorhynchos (platypus), Steropodon, Tachyglossus (echidna).

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fr lwK of Aus & SAm.

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Australosphenida : Ausktribosphenidae + *.

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Teeth absent in adults; molars have two transverse ridges, perhaps not comparable to trigon - trigonid; dentary slender, with low or absent coronoid process; jaw opened with detrahens muscle (Vth nerve only); post-dentary bones fully incorporated into ear, but external auditory meatus lies at posterior base of jaw; Platypus cochlea coiled [H+97]; jugal reduced or absent; anterior extensions of petrosal cover much of therian alisphenoid area; skull bones fuse early in life; cervical ribs present; pectoral girdle primitive with strong ventral elements (both coracoids, clavicle & interclavicle); interclavicle rigidly bound to clavicles [H+97]; scapula robust and provides rigid connection; humerus remains horizontal to substrate; pelvic girdle similar to therians, but with widely angled anterolaterally directed epipubic bones; median spurs on ankles; metabolic rate lower than therian mammals; electrosensory system in rostrum; lack effective evaporative cooling; single urogenital sinus with cloaca; scrotum absent; oviparous, but egg is retained for some time in the uterus and actively provided nutrients by mother; egg not calcified; lactation, but nipples absent; prolonged brooding; low reproduction rate, with individuals very long-lived; all living species fossorial (platypus is aquatic & fossorial).

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Mammaliformes
│
└─Mammalia
├─Australosphenida
│ ├─Ausktribosphenidae
│ └─Monotremata                         │ └─Monotremata
│   ├─Steropodon                  or    │   ├─Steropodon
│   ├─Ornithorhynchos (platypus)        │   │  └─Ornithorhynchos (platypus)
│   └─Tachyglossus (echidna)            │   └─Tachyglossus (echidna)
  └─┬─Triconodonta
└─┬─Spalacotheroidea
└─Cladotheria
├─Dryolestoidea
└─Theria
│
├─Metatheria (marsupials)
└─Eutheria (placental mammals, including humans)

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Theria: Deltatherium, Kielantherium. LCA wallabies and Wallace.

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Fr mK.

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Cladotheria: Dryolestoidea + *: Metatheria + Eutheria.

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No quadrate-articular jaw articulation; all post-dentary bones incorporated into middle ear; tribosphenic molar; jaw opened by digastric muscle (ennervated by Vth & VIIth nerves); $ facial muscles (derived from neck constrictor colli, VIIth nerve); $ spiral cochlea; auditory pinna (external ear); $ able to seal pharynx with tongue and/or epiglottis (for suckling, swallowing by mouthfuls); scapula with supraspinous fossa; loss or fusion of coracoid elements; scapulae move independently around its dorsal border, held in place only by muscles and soft tissues of "scapular sling"; $ supracoracoideus (humeral protractor) reorganized as infraspinatus and supraspinatus which stabilize humerus; $ crurotarsal ankle joint with flexion between tibia and astragalus, astragalus proximal to calcaneum, and gastrocnemius inserting on calcaneal heel; $ mammary glands with nipples (derived from apocrine or sebaceous glands); $ viviparity, with no egg shell; separate anal & urogenital openings; skin with free nerve endings (pain receptor?), Pacinian corpuscles, growing hair, sebaceous, apocrine (and eccrine glands in some specialized forms), and numerous neuroreceptors for touch, temperature, stretch, etc.

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wiki: Platypus: Modern platypus young have three teeth in each of the maxillae (one premolar and two molars) and dentaries (three molars), which they lose before or just after leaving the breeding burrow; ...

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wiki: Tienolophos: Teinolophos trusleri was a prehistoric species of monotreme, or egg-laying mammal. It is known from a lower jawbone found in Flat Rocks, Victoria, Australia. It lived during the Aptian age of the Lower Cretaceous.

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The holotype is a partial left dentary known as NMV P208231. An age of approximately 123 million years makes this the earliest known monotreme. The lower molar is broadly similar in morphology to the m2 of Steropodon. The trigonid is compressed and the talonid has no basin. The dentary is about one sixth the size of Steropodon's, and wear facets indicate an "orthal" occlusion with the upper molars.

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The construction of the lower jaw differs from existing monotremes. Among the contrasts are the condyle, which is well above the tooth row (instead of at about the same height); and the ascending ramus, which is also higher. Also different is that Teinolophos probably had a strong bite. A unique feature for known toothed monotremes is that the trigonid is tall, while the talonid is set much lower. This is more like the general mammalian arrangement. The molar is double-rooted, which is plesiomorphic when compared to ornithorhynchids, but is a shared characteristic with Steropodon and Kollikodon. Subsequent monotreme molars are multi-rooted.

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In biology, homology is the existence of shared ancestry between a pair of structures, or genes, in different taxa. A common example of homologous structures is the forelimbs of vertebrates, where the wings of bats, the arms of primates, the front flippers of whales and the forelegs of dogs and horses are all derived from the same ancestral tetrapod structure. Evolutionary biology explains homologous structures adapted to different purposes as the result of descent with modification from a common ancestor. Homology was explained by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution in 1859, but had been observed before this, from Aristotle onwards, and it was explicitly analysed by Pierre Belon in 1555. The term was applied to biology by the anatomist Richard Owen in 1843.

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The principle of homology: The biological relationships (shown by colours) of the bones in the forelimbs of vertebrates were used by Charles Darwin as an argument in favor of evolution. By Волков Владислав Петрович - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0

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In developmental biology, organs that developed in the embryo in the same manner and from similar origins, such as from matching primordia in successive segments of the same animal, are serially homologous. Examples include the legs of a centipede, the maxillary palp and labial palp of an insect, and the spinous processes of successive vertebrae in a vertebral column. Male and female reproductive organs are homologous if they develop from the same embryonic tissue, as do the ovaries and testicles of mammals including humans.

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Sequence homology between protein or DNA sequences is similarly defined in terms of shared ancestry. Two segments of DNA can have shared ancestry because of either a speciation event (orthologs) or a duplication event (paralogs). Homology among proteins or DNA is inferred from their sequence similarity. Significant similarity is strong evidence that two sequences are related by divergent evolution from a common ancestor. Alignments of multiple sequences are used to discover the homologous regions.

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Draco is a genus of agamid lizards that are also known as flying lizards, flying dragons or gliding lizards. These lizards can move by gliding; their ribs and their connecting membrane may be extended to create "wings" (patagia), the hindlimbs are flattened and wing-like in cross-section, and a flap on the neck (the gular flag) serve as a horizontal stabilizers. Draco are arboreal insectivores.

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Male Draco spilonotus extending the gular flag (throat flap) and patagia ("wings") in Sulawesi, By A.S.Kono - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0

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While not capable of powered flight they often obtain lift in the course of their gliding flights. Glides as long as 60 m (200 ft) have been recorded, over which the animal loses only 10 m (33 ft) in height, which is quite some distance, considering that one of these lizards is only around 20 cm (7.9 in) in total length (tail included).[1] They are found in S. Asia and are fairly common in forests, areca gardens, teak plantations and shrub jungle.

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Wallace's Flying Frog or the Abah River flying frog (Rhacophorus nigropalmatus) is a moss frog found at least from the Malay Peninsula into western Indonesia, and is present in Borneo and Sumatra. It is named for the biologist, Alfred R. Wallace, who collected the first specimen to be formally identified.

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Illustration from Wallace's, The Malay Archipelago

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R. dennysii, R. maximus and Polypedates feae were once contained within Wallace's flying frog as subspecies. Similar frogs also occur in Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Thailand and southern China; these may be R. nigropalmatus or an undescribed, closely related species.[1]

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Flying Fish

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The Exocoetidae is a family of marine fish in the order Beloniformes class Actinopterygii. Fish of this family are known as flying fish. About 64 species are grouped in seven to nine genera. Flying fish can make powerful, self-propelled leaps out of water into air, where their long, wing-like fins enable gliding flight for considerable distances above the water's surface. This uncommon ability is a natural defence mechanism to evade predators.

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Sailfin flying-fish Parexocoetus brachypterus (1)	Flying fish taking off (2)

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The oldest known fossil of a flying or gliding fish, Potanichthys xingyiensis, dates back to the Middle Triassic, 235—242 million years ago. However, this fossil is not related to modern flying fish, which evolved independently about 66 million years ago.[1][2]

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(1)By David Starr Jordan and Barton Warren Evermann - Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission, Vol. XXIII, for 1903. Part I. P. 574, Plate III. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Public Domain, File:Sailfin flyingfish.jpg - Wikimedia Commons
(2) http://www.moc.noaa.gov/mt/las/photos2.htm

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Homologies and analogies

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Since a phylogenetic tree is a hypothesis about evolutionary relationships, we want to use characters that are reliable indicators of common ancestry to build that tree. We use homologous characters characters in different organisms that are similar because they were inherited from a common ancestor that also had that character. An example of homologous characters is the four limbs of tetrapods. Birds, bats, mice, and crocodiles all have four limbs. Sharks and bony fish do not. The ancestor of tetrapods evolved four limbs, and its descendents have inherited that feature so the presence of four limbs is a homology.

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Not all characters are homologies. For example, birds and bats both have wings, while mice and crocodiles do not. Does that mean that birds and bats are more closely related to one another than to mice and crocodiles? No. When we examine bird wings and bat wings closely, we see that there are some major differences.

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Bat wings consist of flaps of skin stretched between the bones of the fingers and arm. Bird wings consist of feathers extending all along the arm. These structural dissimilarities suggest that bird wings and bat wings were not inherited from a common ancestor with wings. This idea is illustrated by the phylogeny below, which is based on a large number of other characters.

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Bird and bat wings are analogous that is, they have separate evolutionary origins, but are superficially similar because they have both experienced natural selection that shaped them to play a key role in flight. Analogies are the result of convergent evolution.

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Interestingly, though bird and bat wings are analogous as wings, as forelimbs they are homologous. Birds and bats did not inherit wings from a common ancestor with wings, but they did inherit forelimbs from a common ancestor with forelimbs.

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